Load Factor For Aircraft - This week we focus on aerodynamics, specifically the load factor experienced during turns. Turning an airplane requires more than smooth coordination of aileron and rudder pressure. Knowing how lift and gravity work in turn will help you fly efficiently within the limitations of your aircraft. The following is an excerpt from The Student Pilot's Flight Manual by William Kershner.
Lift is considered to act perpendicular to the wingspan. Consider an airplane flying straight and level, where lift equals weight. Let's say the airplane weighs 2,000 pounds.
Load Factor For Aircraft
Figure 1A is fine - lift equals weight. If the aircraft is banked at 60°, as shown in Figure 1B, the situation is not so optimistic. The weight value and direction do not change. Still under £2000. However, the cranes operate at different angles. The vertical component of the lift is only 1000lbs because the cosine of 60° is 0.500 (60° is used here for convenience; you certainly won't be doing inclines that steep at the beginning of the workout). This imbalance caused the aircraft to lose altitude. The answer to Figure 1C is to increase the lift vector to 4000 lbs, resulting in a vertical component of 2000 lbs. This is done by increasing the angle of attack. Apply back pressure to the elevator to keep the nose up.
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In our 60° bank example, if you taxied level without releasing the extra 2000 pounds of lift, the airplane would obviously accelerate upwards (the up and down forces would no longer be balanced). Maybe your idea of coordination is what a ballroom dancer exhibits, but it's also necessary on the fly. want to check
A twist introduces a new idea. It is possible to pitch so steeply that the wings cannot support the plane. Lift must increase so much that the aircraft stalls above the critical angle of attack. In the previous 60° bank example, we found that our effective wing area was halved; therefore, each square foot of wing area had to support twice the normal load. it is called
.The fill factor of an airplane in normal, straight and level flight is 1 or 1 "g". At that moment, your body is carrying the same 1 g load. Mathematically, the load factor during a turn is a function of the secant of the bank angle. The secant varies from 1 at 0° to infinity at 90°; thus a constant 90° angle to maintain altitude indefinitely has an infinite amount
In simple terms, stall speed increases when turning at a fixed height, and the steeper the slope, the faster the jump at low speed, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. The load factor just discussed is a "positive" load factor and is obtained by pulling the wheel back, which causes you to push into the seat. If the steering wheel is pushed forward sharply, a negative load factor is applied, where you feel "light" and tend to leave the seat. Light aircraft are typically required to withstand a maximum positive load factor between 3.8 and 6 and a load factor between 1.52 and 3, depending on the make and model. Both you and the plane can withstand positive gravity, which is greater than negative. Sudden rising or falling wind gusts and pilot control with elevator can have a positive load factor on the aircraft. In aerodynamics, the maximum load factor (at a given bank angle) is the ratio of lift to weight and has a trigonometric relationship. The load factor is measured in Gs (gravitational acceleration), a unit of force equal to the force exerted by gravity on an object at rest, which represents the force an object experiences when it is accelerated. Any force applied to an aircraft that causes it to fly in a straight line will stress its structure. The magnitude of this force is the load factor. Although an aerodynamics course is not a prerequisite for a pilot's license, a qualified pilot should have a good understanding of the forces acting on an aircraft, the beneficial use of those forces, and the operating limitations of the aircraft being flown.
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For example, a load factor of 3 means that the total structural load of the aircraft exceeds three times its weight. Since the load factor is expressed in Gs, load factor 3 can be called 3 Gs and load factor 4 4 Gs.
As the aircraft rises from a dive, subjecting the pilot to 3 Gs, he is pushed into the seat with a force equal to his body weight. As modern aircraft operate at significantly higher speeds than older aircraft, increasing the likelihood of high load factors, this effect has become paramount in the design of all aircraft structures.
Since aircraft are designed to handle only a certain amount of overload, all pilots must be aware of the load factor. Load factor is important for two reasons:
The answer to the question "How strong should the plane be?" depends largely on the purpose of the aircraft. This is a problem because the maximum possible load is too great for an efficient design. It is true that any pilot can make a very hard landing or pull up very sharply from a dive, resulting in abnormal loads. However, if one wants to build an airplane that takes off quickly, lands slowly, and carries a valuable load, this extreme anomalous load must be eliminated to some extent.
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The problem of aircraft structural load factor is how to determine the highest load factor that can be expected in normal use under various operating conditions. These load factors are called "limited load factors". Safety considerations require that the aircraft be designed to withstand these load factors without causing structural damage. Although the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) requires aircraft structures to withstand load factors greater than one and a half times these extremes without failure, it is recognized that aircraft components may bend or twist under this load and structural damage may occur.
The above considerations apply to all loading conditions, whether due to gusts, maneuvers or landing. The effective gust load factor requirements are now essentially the same as they have been for years. Hundreds of thousands of working hours have proven that they are safe enough. Because the pilot has little control over the gust load factor (other than reducing the aircraft's speed when encountering adverse air), the gust load requirements are basically the same for most general aviation aircraft, regardless of their intended use. Normally, the gust load factor governs the design of aircraft for strictly non-aerobatic use.
The situation is completely different when designing aircraft with maneuvering load factors. This issue needs to be discussed separately for the following aircraft: (1) aircraft designed according to the category system (ie, normal, utility, aerobatics); (2) older structures built to requirements for which no operating category is provided.
Aircraft designed under the category system are easily identified by cockpit labels that indicate the operating category (or categories) in which the aircraft is certified. The maximum safe load factor (limit load factor) specified for each category of aircraft is: [Figure 1]
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1 For aircraft over 4,000 pounds gross weight, the load limit has been reduced. A safety factor of 50% is added for the above limit loads.
As the maneuvering intensity increases, the load factor tends to increase. The category system ensures maximum utility of the aircraft. If it is intended for normal operation only, the required fill factor (and therefore the weight of the aircraft) will be less than if the aircraft is used for training or aerobatics, as these result in higher maneuvering loads.
Aircraft without category plates are designs built to early engineering specifications and have no pilot-specific operational limitations. For this type of aircraft (which has a maximum weight of approximately 4,000 pounds) the required strength is comparable to today's utility class aircraft and allows for the same type of flight. For airplanes that weigh more than 4,000 pounds, the load factor decreases as weight increases. These aircraft should be considered comparable to conventional aircraft designed under the category system and should be operated accordingly.
At constant altitude, during a coordinated turn of any aircraft, the load factor is the product of two forces: centrifugal force and gravity. [Figure 2] For any given pitch angle, the ROT varies depending
Aerodynamics: Vg Diagram
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